(a) Sediments in the Ganges River plume in the northern Bay of Bengal. The Himalayas are the line of snow-covered mountains across the top of the image; the whites in the center right are clouds. (b) Mississippi River estuary. Images from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Source: From NASA Goddard Earth Sciences, (2007c, 2008).

(a) Sediments in the Ganges River plume in the northern Bay of Bengal. The Himalayas are the line of snow-covered mountains across the top of the image; the whites in the center right are clouds. (b) Mississippi River estuary. Images from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Source: From NASA Goddard Earth Sciences, (2007c, 2008).

Typical salinity/depth profiles (left) and longitudinal salinity sections (right) in different types of estuaries: (a) vertically mixed, (b) slightly stratified, (c) highly stratified, and (d) salt wedge.

Schematic diagram of various types of circulation in seas adjacent to the oceans. (a) Vertically separated inflow and outflow, typified by the Mediterranean and Red Seas (surface inflow and subsurface outflow with transformation within the sea), Baltic Sea and Hudson Bay (subsurface inflow and surface outflow, with transformation within the sea), and Black Sea (subsurface inflow and surface ouflow, with no deep ventilation within the sea). (b) Horizontally separated inflow and outflow, typified by the Arctic Ocean and Caribbean Sea and also by the North Pacific marginal seas (surface inflow and surface outflow, usually through a different strait from the inflow), and by the Nordic Seas, Labrador Sea/Baffin Bay, and also the Persian Gulf (surface inflow and both surface and subsurface outflow).

Mediterranean Sea. (a) Surface circulation schematic. Principal features are in red. After Millot & Taupier-Letage (2005) and Robinson et al. (1991). Blue shows dense flow direction through the straits and away from formation areas, which are roughly indicated with purple. Etopo2 topography (m). Source: From NOAA NGDC (2008). (b) Schematic of overturning circulation (surface, intermediate, and deep layers); curved arrows indicate that only the lighter part of the layer can flow over the sill.

Mediterranean Sea. (a) Surface circulation schematic. Principal features are in red. After Millot & Taupier-Letage (2005) and Robinson et al. (1991). Blue shows dense flow direction through the straits and away from formation areas, which are roughly indicated with purple. Etopo2 topography (m). Source: From NOAA NGDC (2008). (b) Schematic of overturning circulation (surface, intermediate, and deep layers); curved arrows indicate that only the lighter part of the layer can flow over the sill.

(a) Salinity at the vertical salinity maximum characterizing LIW. Source: From Wüst (1961). (b) Longitudinal salinity section in winter to show the LIW.

(a) Salinity at the vertical salinity maximum characterizing LIW. Source: From Wüst (1961). (b) Longitudinal salinity section in winter to show the LIW.

Eastern Mediterranean convection. Formation of dense water in the Levantine Basin in January 1995. (a) Surface dynamic height relative to 800 dbar. The cyclonic low centered at 28°30'E, 35°N is the Rhodes gyre. (b) Salinity and (c) potential density sq along section A. LIW is the salinity maximum at 50—100 m. The convective chimney in the center is forming a deep water. Source: From Malanotte-Rizzoli et al. (2003).

Western Mediterranean convection. (a) Deep convection region in the Gulf of Lions for three winters. Circulation (arrows) and isopycnal depth (m) showing cyclonic doming. (b) Potential density through the convection region in February 1992. Source: From Marshall and Schott (1999).

Western Mediterranean convection. (a) Deep convection region in the Gulf of Lions for three winters. Circulation (arrows) and isopycnal depth (m) showing cyclonic doming. (b) Potential density through the convection region in February 1992. Source: From Marshall and Schott (1999).

Black Sea. (a) Surface circulation schematic. Heavy contours: principal circulation. Light contours: shelf circulation. Dashed contours: eddy-like circulation in interior. Blue: subsurface inflow through the Dardanelles and Bosphorus. After Oguz et al. (2006), with Etopo2 topography from NOAA NGDC (2008). (b) Water properties in the upper 200 m in the Black Sea, 1988. Adapted from Murray et al. (1989). (c) Overturn and transport balances (km³ yr⁻¹). Source: From Oguz et al. (2006).

Black Sea. (a) Surface circulation schematic. Heavy contours: principal circulation. Light contours: shelf circulation. Dashed contours: eddy-like circulation in interior. Blue: subsurface inflow through the Dardanelles and Bosphorus. After Oguz et al. (2006), with Etopo2 topography from NOAA NGDC (2008). (b) Water properties in the upper 200 m in the Black Sea, 1988. Adapted from Murray et al. (1989). (c) Overturn and transport balances (km³ yr⁻¹). Source: From Oguz et al. (2006).

Black Sea. (a) Surface circulation schematic. Heavy contours: principal circulation. Light contours: shelf circulation. Dashed contours: eddy-like circulation in interior. Blue: subsurface inflow through the Dardanelles and Bosphorus. After Oguz et al. (2006), with Etopo2 topography from NOAA NGDC (2008). (b) Water properties in the upper 200 m in the Black Sea, 1988. Adapted from Murray et al. (1989). (c) Overturn and transport balances (km³ yr⁻¹). Source: From Oguz et al. (2006).

North Sea and Baltic Sea. (a) Surface circulation schematic. After Winther and Johannessen (2006) and Leppäranta and Myrberg (2009) with Etopo2 topography from NOAA NGDC (2008). Blue indicates subsurface flow through the Kattegat. (b) Surface salinity in August in the Baltic and North Seas. Source: From Rodhe (1998). (c) Physical processes in the Baltic. Source: From Winsor, Rodhe, and Omstedt. (2001).

North Sea and Baltic Sea. (a) Surface circulation schematic. After Winther and Johannessen (2006) and Leppäranta and Myrberg (2009) with Etopo2 topography from NOAA NGDC (2008). Blue indicates subsurface flow through the Kattegat. (b) Surface salinity in August in the Baltic and North Seas. Source: From Rodhe (1998). (c) Physical processes in the Baltic. Source: From Winsor, Rodhe, and Omstedt. (2001).

North Sea and Baltic Sea. (a) Surface circulation schematic. After Winther and Johannessen (2006) and Leppäranta and Myrberg (2009) with Etopo2 topography from NOAA NGDC (2008). Blue indicates subsurface flow through the Kattegat. (b) Surface salinity in August in the Baltic and North Seas. Source: From Rodhe (1998). (c) Physical processes in the Baltic. Source: From Winsor, Rodhe, and Omstedt. (2001).

Schematic circulations: (a) Red Sea and (b) Persian Gulf. Source: From Johns et al. (1999).

Schematic circulations: (a) Red Sea and (b) Persian Gulf. Source: From Johns et al. (1999).

Wind stress (dyn/cm²) for the Red Sea and Persian Gulf: (a) January (Northeast Monsoon) and (b) July (Southwest Monsoon). Sources: From Johns et al. (1999); see also Sofianos and Johns (2003).